Millions of children share the dream of becoming a professional football player in the National Football League (NFL), but it is a dream that very few achieve. Some will earn the chance to play in high school, a smaller percentage will be able to play at the collegiate level, and only the best will be chosen to play in the NFL. The athletes who beat the odds and make it to the NFL do not make it by accident. To play in the NFL requires endless years of hard work, dedication, and sacrifice. Players give up time with friends and family, holidays, and endure grueling training schedules all to play in the league. The boisterous noise from the crowd, the rush of adrenaline on game day, and the financial stability that comes with being a professional athlete in the NFL is enticing. But, what if the very thing you have been striving for since you were a kid puts you and your future at risk? What if the toll that the beloved game puts on your body is irreversible, leaving you to suffer the detriments of the violent sport long after you exit the field for the final time? This was unfortunately a reality for many former football players who suffered from Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE). Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) is a progressive and fatal brain disease associated with repeated traumatic brain injuries (TBIs), including concussions and repeated blows to the head [1]. The types of injuries that lead to CTE are common in American Football [2]. This article will explain the neurological underpinnings of CTE, its psychological and behavioral effects, and how future bioengineering may help identify CTE antemortem.

Despite the high prevalence of fifty percent among the global population, the common headache is often underestimated, under-recognized, and under-treated [1]. Different sensations associated with headaches have been experienced by most individuals throughout their lifetime; many report having various degrees of pressure that may be described as throbbing, constant, sharp, or dull [2]. While headaches can be easily dismissed by healthcare providers, it is essential to differentiate how common symptoms may be a sign of underlying issues. In order to understand how the symptoms of a headache are commonly misdiagnosed and may indicate potential underlying physiological issues, it is important to analyze the types of headaches, symptoms, potential effects on the brain over time, and treatment.

Most of us have all experienced situations involving high stress over an extended period of time that left us feeling exhausted. As a result, we might have felt withdrawn from our work, had low levels of energy throughout the day, and even experienced decreased efficiency. Everything felt like a never-ending chore due to the pressure. Neurological research has shown that our stress response is an innate process that is key to survival. This is performed through effects on our cognitive and physical states by influencing the brain, musculoskeletal system, and cardiovascular system [1]. However, our stress response can also lead to worsening impacts on our mental health when there are great environmental, physiological or emotional demands over a significant period of time [2]. The result of this is referred to as ‘burnout syndrome’ in the International Classification of Diseases [3]. Burnout syndrome is “a syndrome conceptualized as resulting from chronic workplace stress that has not been successfully managed” [3]. One of the fields that is the most notable for burnout syndrome is medicine. Burnout syndrome in the healthcare industry is a well-reported issue that has been apparent for several decades. The American Medical Association (AMA) reports that most physicians work 40-60 hours a week with nearly one-quarter of physicians working 61-80 hours per week [4]. This statistic does not include the hours they have all spent working 24-hour on-call shifts repeatedly throughout their medical school and residency training. Moreover, nurses regularly work 12-hour shifts [5]. The high stress and long hours can lead to detrimental results, including workforce shortages, worsening of care for patients, and impacts on the physical, emotional and mental health of the providers [6]. It is important to manage the well-being of the healthcare staff to avoid these results. Two of the methods that have been studied to mitigate these outcomes include intermittent naps and increasing illuminance during overnight shifts [7–9]. This article will closely examine these enactments to observe whether they truly overcome provider burnout.

Pavlov’s experiment is widely known as a revolutionary discovery in the psychological community. It resulted in the development of the idea known as classical conditioning. Pavlov’s experiment illustrates this concept by using dogs as its subject, showing an initially neutral stimulus that does not result in a response, and how it evolves to become a conditioned stimulus that elicits a conditioned response. This article will investigate this type of conditioned response in humans, specifically in how they react to a stimulus of phone notifications.

What is pain? Is it physical or psychological? Why do we experience pain? These are some of the common questions that scientists and clinicians ask themselves to be better able to assist patients dealing with chronic pain. Pain is a signal in your nervous system that tells your body that something is wrong [1]. The external feeling of pain can differ depending on many factors, but it will usually be some type of prick, tingle, sting, burn, or ache [1]. It is true that not all pain is the same. Generally, it is categorized into two types–chronic and acute pain. Chronic pain is defined as pain that lasts for longer than three months and occurs in a specific location in the body [2]. It can be divided into two categories: nociceptive, which is caused by tissue damage, or neuropathic, which is caused by damage to the peripheral or central nervous system [2]. The central nervous system (CNS) is composed of the brain and spinal cord while the peripheral nervous system is composed of the nerves that extend throughout the body. Arthritis, an inflammatory joint disease, is one such example of nociceptive pain since it involves the destruction of tissues; multiple sclerosis, a chronic illness affecting the brain, is an example of neuropathic pain since it affects the brain, spinal cord, and optic nerves [3]. In comparison, acute pain is pain that occurs immediately after the pain response is received, and is typically very severe. If acute pain lasts longer than a given recovery period, it may become chronic pain [4]. This will usually occur if the injury or trauma that caused acute pain is not treated properly [4]. When chronic pain occurs, there is an obvious physical burden on an individual, and their day-to-day life is immensely impacted in a variety of ways. However, chronic pain is not simply a physical burden–chronic pain conditions have been found to be in the top 10 leading causes of disability across the world [5].Thus, most, if not all, chronic pain conditions are a contributing factor to unemployment rates [6]. Additionally, different pain and research groups evaluated the risk for suicide in those with different chronic pain disorders, and it was found that they were at a higher risk [7]. Specifically, pain-related depression and migraines were at the highest risk for a suicide attempt [7]. Overall, chronic pain has an impact on many aspects of an individual's life and well-being. Despite the dire need to find solutions for chronic pain, pain research only receives approximately 1-2% of the NIH funding [8]. In general, the treatment of chronic pain has been a matter of controversy in many research and clinical settings for years. Because of the complicated neurological pathways behind pain, many treatments, such as opioids, are ineffective and result in addiction. Recently, however, chronic pain has begun to be addressed through psychotherapies, drugs outside of opioids, and virtual reality technology.

Recent technological development is creating the possibility for individuals with disabilities and neural diseases to hopefully regain some control over their lives. Improvement in Brain Computer Interfaces (BCI’s) might allow the brain and a computer to communicate directly with each other. The most simple of these methods is an EEG (Electroencephalogram), during which electrodes (conductors that measure electrical activity) are placed on the scalp to allow researchers to read brain activity. However, our skulls block many electronic signals and distort the small amount of data that gets through [1]. Scientists can obtain much more detail when they can place these electrodes directly on the brain. This internal placement, although more invasive, opens a world of opportunities to scientists. Since the electrodes can communicate directly with a computer, this allows a blend between man and machine in a way that seems right out of a sci-fi movie. For those with paralysis, this could mean changing the channels on a TV with the mind, sending emails with just a thought, or being able to use a paralyzed part of the body once again. These kinds of changes can revolutionize medical treatment for immediate issues like Parkinson’s disease, neural issues from depression and anxiety, dementia, and paralysis. One company, Neuralink, is at the front line of this technology and is paving the way for its use in the medical field.

Everyone is familiar with Alzheimer’s and dementia. Many have a loved one who suffers from the disease. It is unlikely though that you have met a child who suffers from the same symptoms that progress even faster. Sanfilippo syndrome is deemed a rare disease with less than 5,000 current cases in the United States [1]. As opposed to adults who can live for years without symptoms of Alzheimer’s, Sanfilippo creeps in on vulnerable children and snatches their innocence only to realize it once it is too late. Sanfilippo syndrome is an extremely rare, genetic, metabolic disorder that mimics the brain damage found in patients with dementia or Alzheimer’s disease but in children; this article will examine the genetic causes, symptoms, and new, cutting-edge treatments.