PGE2 AND IL-27: NOVEL PROINFLAMMATORY MECHANISMS INVOLVING DENDRITIC CELLS AND TYPE 1 REGULATORY T CELLS

Abstract

Interleukin-27 (p28/EBI3) is an immunomodulatory cytokine expressed by activated antigen presenting cells. Although first discovered to be involved in Th1 cell differentiation, further studies demonstrated the immunosuppressive functions of IL-27 including inhibition of Th2 and Th17 differentiation, development of a tolerogenic phenotype in dendritic cells (DC), and promoting type 1 regulatory T cells (Tr1). The anti-inflammatory effects of IL-27 have been demonstrated in vivo in murine models of parasitic infections and autoimmune diseases. Despite the prevalence of studies detailing the induction of IL-27 expression and the role of IL-27 in Tr1 differentiation, little is known about factors that negatively regulate IL-27 expression and Tr1 differentiation. Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), a lipid mediator abundant at inflammatory sites, was shown to act as a proinflammatory agent in models of inflammatory/autoimmune diseases primarily by promoting CD4 Th1/Th17 differentiation. Here we describe a novel proinflammatory mechanism for PGE2 through the inhibition of IL-27 production in conventional dendritic cells (cDC) and the inhibition of Tr1 differentiation. PGE2 inhibits IL-27 production in bone marrow-derived DC and macrophages, as well as in splenic cDC, through EP2/EP4 receptors, induction of cAMP, and downregulation of IRF1 expression and binding to the p28 IL-27 ISRE site. The inhibitory effect of PGE2 on p28 and irf1 expression does not involve endogenous IFN-β, STAT1 or STAT2, and inhibition of IL-27 does not appear to be mediated through PKA, EPAC, PI3K, or MAPKs. We observed similar inhibition of p28 expression in vivo in splenic DC following administration of dimethyl PGE2 in conjunction with LPS. In addition to the inhibition of IL-27 production in APCs, PGE2 also directly affects Tr1 differentiation by reducing IL-27-induced CD4+CD49b+LAG-3+Foxp3- Tr1 cells and IL-10 production. The inhibitory effect is mediated by EP4 and induction of cAMP in differentiating CD4 T cells. IL-27-induced Tr1 differentiation and function depends primarily on the sustained expression of c-Maf in addition to AhR and Blimp-1. PGE2 significantly reduced expression of c-Maf without affecting AhR and only marginally reducing Egr-2/Blimp-1 expression. The effects of PGE2 on Tr1 cells are independent of STAT1/STAT3 signaling and of IL-21 signaling. In addition, the effect of PGE2 on CD4+CD49b+LAG-3+ Tr1 differentiation was not associated with either induction of Foxp3 or IL-17 production, suggesting a lack of transdifferentiation into Foxp3+ Treg or effector Th17 cells. The effects of PGE2 on both IL-27 production and IL-27-induced Tr1 differentiation represent novel proinflammatory mechanisms of PGE2.